Friday, April 12, 2019

NATO.-.int :International: North Atlantic Alliance - Põhja-Atlandi Lepingu Organisatsioon - The North Atlantic Treaty Organization - Seapeople - Sea peoples - Wikings (not)




NATO.int :International: North Atlantic Alliance -  Põhja-Atlandi Lepingu Organisatsioon - The North Atlantic Treaty Organization

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.int
"The domain name int is a sponsored top-level domain (sTLD) in the Domain Name System of the Internet. Its name is derived from the word international, characterizing its use for international organizations and treaty-related purposes.[1] The first use of this domain was by NATO, which had previously been assigned the top-level domain nato.
According to Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) policy, based on RFC 1591, the sTLD int is reserved for international treaty-based organizations, United Nations agencies, and organizations or entities having observer status at the UN.[2] int is considered to have the strictest application policies of all TLDs, as it implies that the holder is a subject of international law.
For this reason, the application procedure requires the applicant to provide evidence that it is indeed treaty-based by providing a United Nations treaty registration number and that it has independent legal status."
TLD:
" A sponsored top-level domain (sTLD) is one of the categories of top-level domains (TLDs) maintained by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) for use in the Domain Name System of the Internet. IANA currently distinguishes 3 groups of top-level domains:[1] country-code top-level domains (ccTLD), generic top-level domains(gTLD) and infrastructure top-level domain.
A sponsored TLD is a specialized top-level domain that has a sponsor representing a specific community served by the domain. The communities involved are based on ethnic, geographical, professional, technical or other theme concepts proposed by private agencies or organizations that establish and enforce rules restricting the eligibility of registrants to use the TLD.
Generally speaking, a sponsored TLD is a specialized TLD that has a sponsor representing the narrower community that is most affected by the TLD, while an unsponsored TLD operates under policies established by the global Internet community directly through the ICANN process.[2] Many consider '.gov' to be among the most trusted of TLD's. "DotGov claims that while many TLDs are generic, meaning anyone can obtain a domain name, .gov is a sponsored TLD, where the US Government acts as the sponsor for other US-based government organizations. These organizations are the only ones that can obtain a .gov domain."[3]
For example, the .aero TLD is sponsored by SITA, which limits registrations to members of the air transport industry. "









IANA:In 1995, the National Science Foundation authorized Network Solutions to assess domain name registrants a $50 fee per year for the first two years, 30 percent of which was to be deposited in the Intellectual Infrastructure Fund (IIF), a fund to be used for the preservation and enhancement of the intellectual infrastructure of the Internet.[20]There was widespread dissatisfaction with this concentration of power (and money) in one company, and people looked to IANA for a solution. Postel wrote up a draft[21]on IANA and the creation of new top level domains. He was trying to institutionalize IANA. In retrospect, this would have been valuable, since he unexpectedly died about two years later.

In January 1998, Postel was threatened by US Presidential science advisor Ira Magaziner with the statement "You'll never work on the Internet again" after Postel collaborated with root server operators to test using a root server other than Network Solutions' "A" root to act as the authority over the root zone. Demonstrating that control of the root was from the IANA rather than from Network Solutions would have clarified IANA's authority to create new top-level domains as a step to resolving the DNS Wars, but he ended his effort after Magaziner's threat, and died not long after.[22][23]
Jon Postel managed the IANA function from its inception on the ARPANET until his death in October 1998. By his almost 30 years of "selfless service",[24] Postel created his de facto authority to manage key parts of the Internet infrastructure. After his death, Joyce K. Reynolds, who had worked with him for many years, managed the transition of the IANA function to ICANN.
Starting in 1988, IANA was funded by the U.S. government under a contract between the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency and the Information Sciences Institute. This contract expired in April 1997, but was extended to preserve IANA.[25] 

The Institute, ISI - Information Sciences Institute conducts basic and applied research supported by more than 20 U.S. government agencies involved in defense, science, health, homeland security, energy and other areas.
On December 24, 1998, USC entered into a transition agreement with the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers ICANN, transferring the IANA project to ICANN, effective January 1, 1999, thus making IANA an operating unit of ICANN.[26] 
In June 1999, at its Oslo meeting, IETF signed an agreement with ICANN concerning the tasks that IANA would perform for the IETF; this is published as RFC 2860.[27]
On February 8, 2000, the Department of Commerce entered into an agreement with ICANN for ICANN to perform the IANA functions.[28]

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On October 7, 2013 the Montevideo Statement on the Future of Internet Cooperation was released by the leaders of a number of organizations involved in coordinating the Internet's global technical infrastructure, loosely known as the "I*" (or "I-star") group. Among other things, the statement "expressed strong concern over the undermining of the trust and confidence of Internet users globally due to recent revelations of pervasive monitoring and surveillance" and "called for accelerating the globalization of ICANN and IANA functions, towards an environment in which all stakeholders, including all governments, participate on an equal footing".
The statement was signed by the heads of the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), the Internet Engineering Task Force, the Internet Architecture Board, the World Wide Web Consortium, the Internet Society, and the five regional Internet address registries (African Network Information Center, American Registry for Internet Numbers, Asia-Pacific Network Information Centre, Latin America and Caribbean Internet Addresses Registry, and Réseaux IP Européens Network Coordination Centre).[29][30][31]
In October 2013, Fadi Chehadé, current President and CEO of ICANN, met with Brazilian President Dilma Rousseff in Brasilia. Upon Chehadé's invitation, the two announced that Brazil would host an international summit on Internet governance in April 2014.[32] The announcement came after   President Rousseff's speech at the opening session of the 2013 United Nations General Assembly, where she strongly criticized the American surveillance program as a "breach of international law".
The "Global Multistakeholder Meeting on the Future of Internet Governance (NET mundial)" will include representatives of government, industry, civil society, and academia.[33] At the IGF VIII meeting in Bali in October 2013 a commenter noted that Brazil intends the meeting to be a "summit" in the sense that it will be high level with decision-making authority.[34] The organizers of the "NET mundial" meeting have decided that an online forum called "/1net", set up by the I* group, will be a major conduit of non-governmental input into the three committees preparing for the meeting in April.[31][35][36]
In April 2014 the NetMundial Initiative, a plan for international governance of the Internet, was proposed at the Global Multistakeholder Meeting on the Future of Internet Governance (GMMFIG) conference (23–24 April 2014)[37][38][39] and later developed into the NetMundial Initiative by ICANN CEO Fadi Chehade along with representatives of the World Economic Forum (WEF)[40] and the Brazilian Internet Steering Committee (Comitê Gestor da Internet no Brasil), commonly referred to as "CGI.br".[41]
The meeting produced a nonbinding statement in favor of consensus-based decision-making. It reflected a compromise and did not harshly condemn mass surveillance or include the words "net neutrality", despite initial support for that from Brazil. The final resolution says ICANN should be under international control by September 2015.[42]A minority of governments, including Russia, China, Iran and India, were unhappy with the final resolution and wanted multi-lateral management for the Internet, rather than broader multi-stakeholder management.[43]
A month later, the Panel On Global Internet Cooperation and Governance Mechanisms (convened by the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) and the World Economic Forum (WEF) with assistance from The Annenberg Foundation),Wallis Annenberg,  supported and included the NetMundial statement in its own report.[44]

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IANA was managed by the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) under contract with the United States Department of Commerce (DOC) and pursuant to an agreement with the IETF from 1998 to 2016.[2][45]
The Department of Commerce also provided an ongoing oversight function, whereby it verified additions and changes made in the DNS root zone to ensure IANA complied with its policies. The Internet Architecture Board (IAB), on behalf of the IETF, could terminate the agreement under which ICANN performs IANA functions with six months notice.[citation needed]
ICANN and the Department of Commerce made an agreement for the "joint development of the "mechanisms methods, and procedures necessary to effect the transition of Internet domain name and addressing system (DNS) to the private sector" via a "Joint Project Agreement" in 1998.
On January 28, 2003, the Department of Commerce, via the Acquisition and Grants Office of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, issued a notice of intent to extend the IANA contract for three years. In August 2006, the U.S. Department of Commerce extended the IANA contract with ICANN by an additional five years, subject to annual renewals.[46]
Since ICANN is managing a worldwide resource, while the IANA function is contracted to ICANN by the US Department of Commerce, various proposals have been brought forward to decouple the IANA function from ICANN.[citation needed]
On October 1, 2009 the "Joint Project Agreement" between ICANN and U.S. Department of Commerce expired, replaced by an "Affirmation of Commitments".[47][48] On March 14, 2014, the U.S. Department of Commerce announced its intent to transition key Internet domain name functions to a global multi-stakeholder community.[49][50]
In August 2016 ICANN incorporated Public Technical Identifiers, a non-profit affiliate corporation in California, to take over the IANA functions once the current contract expired at the end of September.[51][52]

The Department of Commerce confirmed that its criteria for transitioning IANA Stewardship to the Internet multistakeholder community had been met, and that it intended to allow its contract with ICANN to expire on September 30, 2016,
allowing the transition to take effect.[53][54][55]
On October the contract between the United States Department of Commerce and ICANN to perform the IANA functions was allowed to expire and the stewardship of IANA functions was officially transitioned to the private-sector.[56][57]



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ISI
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ISI research spans artificial intelligence (AI), cybersecurity,[6] grid computing,[7] quantum computing, microelectronics,[8][9] supercomputing, nano-satellites and many other areas. AI expertise includes natural language processing, in which ISI has an international reputation,[10][11][12] reconfigurable robotics,[13] information integration, motion analysis[14][15] and social media analysis.

Hardware/software expertise includes cyber-physical system security, data mining, reconfigurable computing and cloud computing. In networking, ISI explores Internet resilience, Internet traffic analysis and photonics, among other areas.[16][17] Researchers also work in scientific data management, wireless technologies, biomimetics and electrical smart grid, in which ISI is advising the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power on a major demonstration project.[18] Another current initiative involves big data brain imaging jointly with the Keck School of Medicine of USC.[19]
Federal agency sponsors include the Air Force Office of Scientific Research, Department of Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, Department of Education, Department of Energy, Department of Homeland Security, National Institutes of Health, National Science Foundation, and other scientific, technical and defense-related agencies.
Corporate partners include Chevron Corp. in the Center for Interactive Smart Oilfield Technologies (CiSoft), Lockheed Martin Company in the USC-Lockheed Martin Quantum Computation Center, and Parsons Corp. subsidiary Sparta Inc. in the DETER Project, a cybersecurity research initiative and international testbed. ISI also has partnered with businesses including IBM Corporation, Samsung Electronics Company, the Raytheon Company, GlobalFoundries Inc., Northrop Grumman Corporation and Carl Zeiss AG, and currently is working with Micron Technology, Inc., Altera Corporation and Fujitsu Ltd.
ISI also operates the Metal Oxide Semiconductor Implementation Service (MOSIS), a multi-project electronic circuit wafer service that has prototyped more than 60,000 chips since 1981. MOSIS provides design tools and pools circuit designs to produce specialty and low-volume chips for corporations, universities and other research entities worldwide. The Institute also has given rise to several startup and spinoff companies in grid software, geospatial information fusion, machine translation, data integration and other technologies.

History[edit]

ISI was founded by Keith Uncapher, who headed the computer research group at RAND Corporation in the 1960s and early 1970s.[20][21] Uncapher decided to leave RAND after his group's funding was cut in 1971. He approached the University of California at Los Angeles about creating an off-campus technology institute, but was told that a decision would take 15 months. He then presented the concept to USC, which approved the proposal in five days.[2] ISI was launched with three employees in 1972. Its first proposal was funded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) in 30 days for $6 million.[22]
ISI became one of the earliest nodes on ARPANET,[23] the predecessor to the Internet, and in 1977 figured prominently in a demonstration of its international viability.[24]ISI also helped refine the TCP/IP communications protocols fundamental to Net operations,[3] and researcher Paul Mockapetris developed the now-familiar Domain Name System characterized by .com, .org, .net, .gov, and .edu[25] on which the Net still operates. (The names .com, .org et al. were invented at SRI International, an ongoing collaborator.)
Steve Crocker originated the Request for Comments (RFC) series, the written record of the network's technical structure and operation that both documented and shaped the emerging Internet.[26] Another ISI researcher, Danny Cohen, became first to implement packet voice and packet video over ARPANET, demonstrating the viability of packet switching for real-time applications.[27]
Jonathan Postel collaborated in development of TCP/IP, DNS and the SMTP protocol that supports email.[28]
He also edited the RFC for nearly three decades until his sudden death in 1998, when ISI colleagues assumed responsibility.
The Institute retained that role until 2009. Postel simultaneously directed the Internet Assigned Number Authority (IANA) and its predecessor, which assign Internet addresses. IANA was administered from ISI until a nonprofit organization, ICANN, was created for that purpose in 1998.[29]
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Cohen was the first entity to implement, Voice Over Internet Protocol (Voice over IP or VOIP). Some of the first Net security applications, and one of the world's first portable computers, also originated at ISI.[30]
ISI researchers also created or co-created the:
In 2011, several ISI natural language experts advised the IBM team that created Watson, the computer that became the first machine to win against human competitors on the Jeopardy! TV show.[35][36] In 2012, ISI's Kevin Knight spearheaded a successful drive to crack the Copiale cipher, a lengthy encrypted manuscript that had remained unreadable for 250 years.[37]
Also in 2012, the USC-Lockheed Martin Quantum Computation Center (QCC) became the first organization to operate a quantum annealing system outside of its manufacturer, D-Wave Systems, Inc.[38]
USC, ISI and Lockheed Martin now are performing basic and applied research into quantum computing.[39] A second quantum annealing system is located at NASA Ames Research Center, and is operated jointly by NASA and Google.[40]
The USC Andrew and Erna Viterbi School of Engineering was ranked among the nation's top 10 engineering graduate schools by US News & World Report in 2015.[1][41]Including ISI, USC is ranked first nationally in federal computer science research and development expenditures.[2]

Organizational structure[edit]

ISI is organized into six divisions focused on differing areas of research expertise:[5]
  • Internet and Networked Systems: networking software and hardware, Internet security, decision systems and related areas
  • Computational Systems and Technology: quantum computing; supercomputing; cloud, wireless, reconfigurable and multicore computing; microarchitecture and electronics; science automation technologies; social networks and space systems
  • Intelligent Systems: artificial intelligence, including natural language, machine translation, information integration, social networks, knowledge engineering, multi-agent systems and robotics
  • Informatics: application of grid computing and other methods to healthcare discovery processes, practice and delivery
  • Advanced Electronics: MOSIS shared-services integrated circuit research and fabrication, CMOS and post-CMOS concepts, and biomimetics
  • Space Technology and Systems: space research and hands-on involvement for students through the Space Engineering Research Center, operated jointly by ISI and USC.
Smaller, specialized research groups operate within almost all divisions.
ISI is led by Executive Director Prem Natarajan, previously an executive vice president and principal scientist at Raytheon BBN Technologies. He is a natural language specialist with research interests that focus on optical character recognition, speech processing, and multimedia analysis.[42] Natarajan joined ISI in 2013, succeeding USC Viterbi School vice dean John O'Brien, who served as interim executive director in 2012 and 2013. From 1988 to 2012, ISI was led by former IBM executive Herbert Schorr.[2][43]
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